Jews in Algeria
01: Arab rule 680-1516
Jews following the Arab invasion - schooling and
trade along the Sudanese gold route
Encyclopaedia Judaica 1971: Algeria, vol. 2,
col. 613, map of the Jewish communities in
Algeria
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from: Algeria; In: Encyclopaedia Judaica 1971, vol. 2
presented by Michael Palomino (2007)
<ALGERIA (Central
Maghreb; Ar al-Jaza'ir),
modern designation for the central part of North Africa,
bordered by *Morocco on the west and *Tunisia on the east.
[7th century: Arab invasion
- and new Jewish communities]
Resistance against the Arab invasion in the seventh century
was organized first near Biskra and later in the
Aurès mountains, where the
*kahina (an epithet meaning priestess),
the "queen" of the Judeo-Berber tribe Jarawa, won brilliant
victories. With the death of the
kahina in 693 came the collapse of Berber
independence. Most of the Jarawa adopted Islam, others
escaped to the west and south reinforcing the Jewish
elements there.
Oriental Jews, who followed in the wake of the Arab armies
in large numbers, rebuilt the old destroyed communities of
Algeria. The Jews in the urban centers, such as Mejana or
Mesila, were Rabbanites; so also were the Jews in the
capitals of the various Berber kingdoms - Ashir, Tahert
(Tiaret), where the philologist R. Judah *ibn Quraysh lived,
*Tlemcen, and *Qal'at Hammad, where R. Isaac *Alfasi was
probably born.
[Contacts abroad -
schooling and academic traditions]
These communities were in contact with the communities of
*Fez in the west and *Kairouan in the east, and even with
the
geonim of
Babylonia and Palestine. It is partly through them that the
teachings of the academies of *Sura and *Pumbedita, and
later of Kairouan, spread to Morocco, and from there to
Spain. Thus, the influence of these communities on the
intellectual and religious development of the Jews of Spain
can be seen.
The teachings of the sages were spread to the area north of
the Sahara Desert from Gabès, Tunisia, to Sijilmassa
(in the Ziz Valley), Morocco, by traveling merchants. The
Jewish tribes of the region of Wargha were Karaites. They
were nomad warriors. Their descendants were called "Bahusim"
and remained in the eastern part of Algeria up to modern
times.
[989: Revolt against Ziride
rule - 12th and 13th century: diminished Jewish
communities]
In the tenth century, a Jew named Abu al-Faraj instigated an
important revolt against the Ziride sovereigns of the Berber
tribes in the Setif region. Defeated, he was tortured to
death in 989.
Apart from the fact that the community of Tlemcen was
destroyed, almost nothing is known about Algerian Jews
during the rule of the Almohades in the 12th and 13th
centuries. In any case, after that period of disorder the
Jewish population of Algeria was considerably diminished.
[13th and 14th century:
Contacts with Europe - Tlemcen and the Sudanese gold route
- Muslim immigration from Spain]
In the 13th and 14th centuries some Jewish merchants
residing in Algeria had regular contacts with other
countries, particularly with Catalonia, and these ties
served to keep open channels of communication with the more
developed Jewish communities. Jews of Languedoc and even
Marseilles lived in Bougie, the Algerian harbor town, from
1248.
Tlemcen, gate to the Mediterranean and a final station on
the Sudanese gold route, known as the "Jewish Road", had a
small but lively community, which was sustained by the rich
Jewish merchants of Barcelona, Valencia, Tortosa, and
Majorca. Most of these merchants were actually natives of
the Maghreb and particularly favored by the kings of Aragon,
who relied on them as essential to their prosperity. Their
relatives had remained in the Maghreb, settling at *Algiers,
Cherchel, Tenes, Mostaganem, and Tlemcen.
At that time there was a continuous emigration of Muslims
from the Christian kingdoms of Spain to Africa and they were
assisted by the Jews in Spain. This was the very
remunerative business of the great Jewish African-Spanish
family Alatzar (also al-'Azar), in particular.
[Jewish trade activities in
Algeria - Jews as ambassadors between Christian kings and
Muslim courts]
The Jewish merchants of the central Maghreb had many trade
activities, including the slave trade, so important at the
time. However, they traded chiefly in Sudanese gold. Many
traded with the Balearic Islands using their own ships.
The Christian kings of Spain appointed many Jews as their
ambassadors to the Muslim courts. In that capacity Abraham
and Samuel Abengelel, Judas "Abenhatens", and the
alfaquim ("physician")
*Bondavin made their first visit (col. 612)
to Tlemcen in 1286. In 1305 Solomon b. Zequi of Majorca was
chosen to settle a dispute with the town of Breshk. These
experts in North African diplomacy, as well as the wealthy
merchants in the country, were exceptions among the mass of
Algerian Jewry, whose level of culture was very low.
[1391: Jews coming from
Spain - conflicts between African and Spanish Jews in
Algeria]
Largely because of them and the possibility of communication
with the important economic centers which they represented,
many Spanish refugees of 1391 chose Algeria as their haven.
They emigrated in continuous groups from Catalonia and the
Balearic Islands. They were favorably received by the Muslim
authorities, in particular by the Ziyanid princes. In
contrast, their relations with the local Jews, who had at
first received them fraternally, later became tense, Their
numbers gave rise to fear of competition in their
professions. Differences in ritual, language, customs, and
above all of social conceptions, caused conflicts between
the two communities.
The Sephardi Jews asserted themselves by their intellectual
superiority, financial means, and their skills. The older
community resisted the attempt of the newcomers to dominate
communal life. However, there were refugee leaders who were
able to mitigate the conflicts between the two groups. The
learning and dedication of the new immigrants renewed the
moral and religious life of Algerian Jewry. Their talent in
organizational activities strengthened the Jewish
institutions of Algeria.
[Jewish schooling in
Algeria since 1391]
R. Ephraim Ankawa reestablished the community of Tlemcen;
the eminent talmudic authorities R. *Isaac b. Sheshet Perfet
(Ribash), R. Simeon b. Zemah *Duran (Rashbaz), and the
latter's descendants were mainly responsible for Algiers
becoming a religious and intellectual center. The
communities of *Honein, *Oran, Mostaganem, Miliana,
Médéa, Tenès, Breshk, *Bougie,
*Bône, and *Constantine, although dependent on
Algiers, also became centers of Jewish learning under the
leadership of the rabbis Amram Merovas Ephrati, Samuel
Halawa, the brothers *Najjar, and others.
[1492: Only few Spanish
Jewish refugees coming - Muslim defeat leads to attacks
against the Jews - and Jews are sold as slaves]
Very few of the Spanish exiles of 1492 came to Algeria. The
only city that attracted them was Tlemcen, which they
reached by way of Oran. It has been said, however, that the
loss of Granada, Spain, in 1492 by the Muslims had grave
repercussions for the Jews in Algeria. In cases such as that
of the Muslim preacher al-Maghilli, resentment was (col.
613)
expressed in violent tirades against the Jews. The
prosperous and powerful communities of Tlemcen and, in
particular, Tuat were destroyed some years later as a result
of such agitation. Just after these events, the Spanish
occupation of Oran (1509-1708) and Bougie (1509-55),
resulted in Jewish property being pillaged and the Jews
themselves sold as slaves. Finally, however, some
influential families such as Jacob *Cansino, Jacob b. Aaron,
and *Sasportas convinced the Spaniards in Oran that their
Arab policy would best be served by accepting a Jewish
community in Oran.
[17th and 18th centuries:
Jews from Italy coming to Algeria - ransoming Christian
captives]
In the 17th and 18th centuries, descendants of Marranos and
Jews from Leghorn [[Livorno]], Italy, settled in Algeria,
especially Algiers. Among the first who arrived were the
Lousada, Alvarenga, Zacuto, Molco, and dela Rosa families;
among the later ones were the Soliman, *Busnach, *Bouchara,
Bakri, Lealtad, and *Delmar families. They played an
important role in ransoming Christian captives for European
governments, and their commercial activities enriched the
country.
[Commerce since 1391 - the
megorashim Jews from Castile with berets or hoods - native
African Jews with turbans]
The "refugees of 1391" had stimulated Algerian trade and
brought prosperity to remote communities. They exported
ostrich feathers from Mzab and African gold from Tuat, as
well as burnooses, rugs, cereals, wool, and pelts to Europe,
while European products were in turn sold in Africa by the
same merchants.
At that time the Jews owned estates, slaves, and flocks. In
the regions subject to a central power, the Jews paid the
jizya, the tax
levied on all non-Muslims. Their rabbis were exempted from
it, as were the merchants, mainly descendants of
megorashim [[Jews
expelled from Castile]] because they paid customs on their
imports. The native Jews were thus in an inferior position.
Moreover, the
megorashim
had a separate quarter, synagogue, and even cemetery. Their
dress was also different from that of the native Jews; they
continued this distinction by wearing berets or hoods. Thus,
they were called
ba'alei
ha-kappus or
kabbusiyyin,
in contrast to the ba'alei
ha-miznefet, native Jews who wore turbans.
[14th century-1830:
Community life and justice practices of Jewish communities
in Algeria]
The organization of the communities that was established in
the 14th century was in effect until 1830. At the head of
each community was a
Sheikh
al-Yahud, or
Zaken
ha-Yehudim, called also
muqaddim, who was appointed by the Muslim
authorities. His powers were discretionary, tempered only by
protests of the rabbis. A prison and the police were at his
disposal for punishing and carrying out the sentences of the
bet din. He also
named the officers (
gedolei
ha-kahal,
ziknei
ha-kahal) who were charged with the collection and
administration of charity funds, and the management of the
synagogue and charitable institutions.
The Judeo-Spanish groups chose their officers (
ne'emanim) themselves.
The rabbinical courts were composed of three judged chosen
and paid by the community. Only civil disputes were brought
to them; they had no jurisdiction in criminal matters.
Although the rabbinical courts were available to Algerian
Jews, they tended more and more to turn to Muslim civil
courts. To discourage this practice the rabbis were able to
threaten, and indeed put into effect, decrees of
excommunication. On questions of
minhag [[local custom]], however, the
rabbis were often compelled to approve the local custom
followed by African Jews. Some later practices originated in
takkanot
[[juridical orders]]. The
haskamot,
agreements over administrative regulations, also legalized
local practices.
The particular regulations of each community gave it a
certain individuality that it jealously preserved for future
generations. This resulted in collections of
minhagim [[local
customs]], prayers, and liturgy (
piyyutim), the work of local rabbis,
written either in Hebrew or Judeo-Arabic.
The communities of Tlemcen, Oran, and Algiers each had its
own
mahzor [[high
holiday prayer book]]. Sometimes the synagogues of the same
town even had different liturgies. (col. 614)
Thus, in the 18th century the community of Algiers was
convulsed by disputes over liturgy.
[14th century-1830: Jewish-Muslim relations]
Jewish-Muslim relations were, on the whole, good. It was
only occasionally that outbursts of fanaticism gave rise to
local persecutions. In certain towns it was accepted that at
such times the mosques, although forbidden to infidels,
should serve as a refuge to the Jews. The religious Muslim
leaders sometimes helped them; for example, the
marabout (Muslim holy
man) of Blida, southwest of Algiers, stopped a pogrom and
forced the plunderers to return their booty.> (col. 615)
